Etruscan Funerary Art

Etruscan is a term given to a culture that lived in central Italy (near what is now Tuscany) beginning in a bout 750 BC. Though they had the same access to marble and stone as Rome would have, even if it was imported, they seemed to prefer using Terracotta for their sculptures. Terra means earth or clay (as in terrain) and Cotta comes from the Latin cocta, which is where we got the word cook. So Terracotta is a ceramic made of baked clay. One reason for this preference may have been the tradition of erecting buildings made of wood, which would not have supported stone on the pediments.

Because of the familiarity of Terracotta in temples and in the image of goddesses, it also seemed to be the preferred technique for building Sarcophagi. Sarco/phagus means flesh (like Sarcoma) and to eat (like esophagus). This, because traditional sarcophagi were made of limestone and the pH of the stone seemed to act as a catalyst for decomposition hence, "flesh eaters".

In the image below a couple can be seen together having a party so-to-speak. The man once held a goblet and the couple looks very much alive. They have fleshy cheeks, large eyes, and archaic smiles. This represents what they are doing currently in the after-life, not necessarily how they lived in mortality. If you view the lower half, you would assume they were laying supine like in the Egyptian coffins. The two views shared with the lower and upper halves are a reminder that although they are dead and at rest, they are also very much alive as an enduring couple.

Sarcophagus of the Spouses in the Nat'l Museum of Rome

Closer detail of facial expression

Married Couple from Cerveteri in the Louvre

Later Hellinistic examples.

Embalming: Art or Science?

Here is a short essay by an embalmer I thought you might enjoy:

Many people engage in activities that are generally appreciated by the public. Artists, athletes, musicians, and performers have all acquired skills that are admired by their respective audiences. The end result of the artistic activity in which I engage also has an audience, but is generally underappreciated, misunderstood, or avoided. I am an embalmer.
I pride myself in my science – or is it an art? A good embalmer has to evaluate each client that graces his canvas. Taking into account the decedent’s age, weight, cause of death, medications, and interval since the time of death, are all factors that must be noted before the chemical cocktail is mixed. The appropriate ratios of Formaldehyde, dyes, humectants, injection pressure, and dilution are all colors on the palette. Only experience can foresee a plausible outcome.
In the living, the eyes are the center of expression; but in the not-so-living, it is the mouth. The lifeless lips before me once laughed, frowned, flirted, and now ceased. Now I must sum up that life with a casketed monument that will be seen by all those who loved it. Whatever expression I create on the pallid face will be set in stone, to be viewed during an encore following the closing of the final curtain.
The next time you approach an open casket, soon to be a buried treasure, allow your retained breath to become a sigh. Take time to appreciate the opportunity to see your loved one again: an opportunity that came as the result of a skilled mortician. Take comfort in the rosy-colored icon that was once your mother, or sister, or friend. Touch her hand and kiss her forehead, and say, “Good night”.

Beware the Undertaker!

Tall, gray, old, gaunt, and cold: these are the words that describe the undertaker. At least that is, if you believe Hollywood, poems, and artistic depictions. Watch this video clip for an example of how funeral directors are portrayed in movies:

In many poems like Rudyard Kipling’s “The Undertaker’s Horse”, the undertaker is seen as one who steals a loved one from your grasp, almost using the image of the undertaker and the Grim Reaper interchangeably.

“Answer, sombre beast and dreary,
Where is Brown, the young, the cheery,
Smith, the pride of all his friends and half the Force?
You were at that last dread dak
We must cover at a walk,
Bring them back to me, O Undertaker's Horse!”

So the question is, what kind of traits must a real mortician have? Here are just a few of the qualifications:

• Flexible: Works odd hours and is often on call.
• Compassionate and Empathetic: deals with others’ strong emotions daily
• Dignified and Professional: must show proper respect to certain circumstances
• Good Communicator: Must be able to discuss potentially unpleasant topics
• Open-Minded: Deals with many religions and belief-systems
• Knowledgeable and Skilled: Has to know something about legalities, finances, human anatomy, embalming, religion, management, insurance, veterans, chemistry, and on and on
• Involved in the Community: Knowing many people on a personal level is important for serving every demographic.

Here is perhaps a better description of the Undertaker by Bennett Chapple:

The midnight hour, the darkest hour
That human grief may know,
Sends forth it’s hurried summons-
Ask me to come—I go!

I know not when the bell may toll,
I know not where the blow may fall,
I only know that I must go
In answer to the call.

Perhaps a friend—perhaps unknown-
‘Tis fate that turns the wheel-
The tangled skein of human life
Winds slowly on the reel.

And I? - I’m the undertaker,
“Cold-Blooded,” you’ll hear them say,
“Trained to the shock and chill of death,
With a heart that’s cold and grey.”

Trained—that’s what they call it
How little they know the rest-
I’m human, and know the sorrow
That throbs in the aching breast.

F.A.Q. Are there qualifications to become a mortician?
All states in the US (Except Colorado) require some form of license to practice as a mortician. Some states offer separate licenses for morticians/embalmers and funeral directors. Most states require a degree in Mortuary Science (yes, that degree exists) as well as a 1 - 2 year apprenticeship.

Embalming: The How and Why

To Embalm means just that - em (to cause) balm (spices). Embalming has been around since almost the beginning of time. Jacob’s (Israel’s) embalming is recorded in Genesis Ch 50. It became popular in the United States during the Civil War because soldiers could be sent home instead of being buried in the battlefield. Abraham Lincoln was the first US President to be embalmed and his body was taken on ‘tour’ over 1650 miles. This popularized embalming as people could see the state his body was in even days after his death.

Embalming has not always been as we know it today. It has ranged from simply anointing the body to the complex rituals of wealthy Egyptians. Today’s process is known as arterial embalming. Thomas Holmes is known as the Father of American Embalming and introduced the process of arterial embalming. The blood of the vascular system is replaced with embalming fluid which contains dyes, humectants, surfactants, and small amounts of formalin – the liquid form of the gaseous formaldehyde. Some chemical companies have replaced formalin, which has its drawbacks, with gluteraldehyde.

Here is a very simplified rundown of the process:

• 1. The facial features such as mouth and eyes are positioned
• 2. A major artery (usually the Carotid first) is raised above the skin
• 3. An accompanying vein (ie the Jugular) is raised
• 4. Fluid is injected (pumped) into the artery and the vein is incised to allow drainage
• 5. Fluid distribution is observed and other arteries are injected if needed
• 6. Incision are sutured

During this process the hair and body are washed and the fingernails are cleaned, etc.

After arterial embalming is completed, cavity embalming begins. A long tube known as a trocar is inserted into the Thoracic (chest) and Abdominopelvic Cavities and any fluids or gases that may be present are aspirated or removed via suction. Then a strong concentrated fluid is distributed throughout the cavities. There have been times in history that only cavity embalming was done and times when only arterial embalming was done.

The benefits of embalming are numerous: It puts color back into the skin, it slows decomposition, it disinfects, and it restores a more natural appearance. Though there is no federal law that requires embalming, most (if not all) funeral homes require it in the case of a public viewing. The real value of embalming however, is unseen. I could write pages and pages about the importance of viewing the body of a friend or family member.

“Dr. Erich Lindemann, a pioneer in the study of grief management…postulates that avoidance of the dead body is always done at the psychological peril of the aggrieved, and that this avoidance may appear at first to be consoling in the initial phase of acute grief. But in truth [this] is just an illusion. In time, the necessity to view the body becomes a major issue in postbereavement care.” Mayer, Robert. Embalming. McGraw-Hill Medical, 2006. pp 7-8. Print.

Author, poet, and funeral director, Thomas Lynch says: “remembering him the way he was…begins by denying with the way he is. When someone dies, it is not them we fear seeing, it is them dead. We fear that seeing will be believing.” Lynch, Thomas. Bodies in Motion and at Rest. W. W. Norton & Company, 2001. Print.

Embalming can cost anywhere from $250 to $800 and can be more if the person was autopsied. Surprisingly, most funeral homes lose money on the embalming process. The general public does not seem to understand the true value of embalming, and since embalming is not required for certain services such as cremation and direct burial without public viewing, funeral homes fear that raising the price to much better cover the cost will steer people away from the option.

FAQ: Are the Organs Removed During Embalming?

No, Embalming utilizes the circulatory system and is done with as small of incisions as possible. A pathologist will remove organs during an autopsy, but they are kept with the body and buried/cremated.

Lincoln's Body:

Civil War embalming photos:

Casket or Coffin?

The media constantly gets it wrong, (so does Wikipedia) speaking of the flag-draped coffin of so-and-so, or the coffin carrying the body of so-and-so. So maybe we can clear this up a bit. What is the difference between a casket and a coffin?
Casket is actually a pretty general term that refers to (historically) a box for holding jewels - a jewelry box. This is quite a fitting term then, for the box that holds the body of a friend or family member. Caskets can generally be placed into two categories: wood and metal (and cremation caskets, which will be discussed in a later post). The wood casket can be hard or softwood and made of multiple woods. They are 6' 3" long and 28" wide. Don't worry my big n' tall friends, you can get larger and longer if needed. Metal caskets are 6' 6" long and are either Ferrous or Non-Ferrous. Ferrous (like steel) caskets' thickness is measured in gauges, while Non-Ferrous (like copper or bronze) are measured in ounces per square foot. Caskets can be sealed (locked with a gasket) or non-sealed. The sealed casket is designed to keep out air, soil, and water. Frankly, while people seem to appreciate this protection against the elements, the body is forced to decompose through anaerobic means, which leads to a slimy putrefaction. Allowing air, water, and soil into the casket makes for a 'dryer' and less odoriferous transition.

But enough of the deets - a coffin is a body-holding box as well, but it is hexagonal in shape, 'bulging' at the shoulders, like you may picture Count Dracula in. Like most death-related terms, coffin became an uncomfortable term and so casket was the new euphemism because it had a more pleasant connotation. I wonder what will replace casket? In North America, chances are it is a casket, unless it's a real die-hard cowboy that makes his own 'toe-pincher' coffin. However, coffins are still used in Europe and other parts of the world and are made of the same high quality materials. To be safe, you can always say casket. A coffin can be called a casket, but a casket can't be called a coffin :)

Caskets can either have two lids, one that exposes the top half of the body, or a single lid that displays the entire body (known as half and full couch caskets) There have been many variations in fabric, material, and design throughout history, but I won't bore you with whole story. Below are examples of coffins and caskets. You can see great examples of older caskets by going to this link - these are old photos of the deceased, so enter at your own risk.

FAQ: What is a vault and why is it necessary?
A vault is an outer burial container that is placed in the grave to hold the casket and is topped with a lid. There are multiple reasons for using vaults. Environmental reasons, especially with cemeteries within city limits is one reason. Also the use of a vault can help keep this from happening during a flood. Many cemeteries require vaults to avoid the ill affects from the ground settling as old caskets decay, or to keep caskets from crushing under the weight of cemetery equipment.


A coffin from made-in-china.com and a half-couch casket from dahlcares.com

A Full-Couch casket from hansenspear.com

Hearse (with no T)

One of the trademarks of the funeral is the Hearse or the "Funeral Coach". First, a little etymology. Funeral comes from the Latin Funeralis which actually means torchlight procession. This seems to be a topic of disagreement among some linguists who claim that funeralis simply means having to do with a funeral <- I could have made that one up. It's not just for safety that cars drive with their headlamps on during a procession, it is also symbolic of torches that were carried when processions were on foot. A little more etymology, Hearse comes from the Old French Herce, which is a rake or a harrow. Makes sense, right? OK, maybe a little more explanation. Cemeteries that were extramural required a lot of walking for the mourners - and especially the bearers. So wagons or carriages began replacing walking, and the bearers were relieved by a flat wagon that would bear the weight of the casket, it was called a bier. Biers are still used today to place caskets for viewing, but many are seen on the more-portable church truck. Remember the torchlight? Candles or torches were placed on a spiked form that lay upon the bier or even over the deceased at a viewing for soft lighting. This apparatus resembled (or in some cases may have actually been) a rake or harrow aka a herce. Over time the vehicle carrying the casket inherited the name. I do not know why many people put a T on the end and pronounce it Hurst!
Interesting Note: Since you now know that a hearse is a rake or harrow, doesn't the word rehearse make more sense? You rake over and over something when you re-hearse.

FAQ: What is the design on the back of the Hearse?
The S-shaped bars are known as Landau bars and are seen on vehicles from the late era of carriages and even early era of automobiles. They were originally attached to a soft top that could be folded back during nice weather. They represented fine-quality carriages and cars and were kept as part of the prestigious design.

A Processional Bier from greenfieldswoodlandburials.co.uk

A Viewing Bier from gunderchurch.com and a Church Truck from premierfuneralsupply.com

Bars on a Landau Carriage and Landau Bars on Hearse from federalcoach.com

Pallbearer or Casket Bearer?

There has been a recent shift in lingo when it comes to funeral-related terms. This, mainly because of society's desire to distance themselves from terms that are potentially unpleasant. Headstone has become Grave Marker, Funeral has become Celebration of Life, Hearse has become Funeral Coach, etc, etc. So why the shift from Pallbearer to Casket Bearer?

In reality, this term is changing due to a term that is no longer relevant. A pall is a heavy cloth that once draped over a casket and is still in rare use today. The term pall is still used to refer to a covering in the figurative sense, such as "a pall of suspicion" It once was that there were men designated to carry the pall to the place of rest, and these were true pallbearers. The men carrying the casket were known simply as bearers (usually four) and four others acted as relief on "long hauls", they were under bearers. (Habenstein, Robert, and William Lamers. The history of American funeral directing. 1981, 1981. 234. Print.)

Usually the men were prominent in the community or within the family. Today it is not unusual to see females act as bearers especially those closely related to the deceased. The number of bearers can range from four to ten, though space can become quite limited. If more than ten are selected, half may be used from the funeral venue to the hearse, and the remaining from the hearse to the grave site.

FAQ: What is an Honorary Pallbearer?
An honorary bearer is a person that the family wants to make special mention of, but that does not actually carry the casket. Sometimes honorary bearers sit in a designated place for the service or may wear a boutonniere.

Below is an example of a pall, this one from www.susanmaria.com